ࡱ> s ^zjbjb kkp]4XXXXXXXX,XXXXX8XXX888XhXX,hhHhhX88.Dh.C x Reggae: Past, Present, and Future from Mento to Ragga to Jungle Shaun Coughlin Rhetoric of Reggae April 18, 2000 With the advent of digital technology, and such devices as the synthesizer, and the drum machine the world of music was forever changed. A door to a whole new world of possibilities regarding sound had been erected. It only followed that musicians and producers alike would begin to step through. Truly then, music is a constantly evolving entity as styles, taste, and technology change. Further, music and its evolution is often a herald of recent and future changes in areas of society such as political views and recreational activities. In Jamaica reggae music is the sole personification of these statements, while in the United Kingdom an offshoot of techno, Jungle, has been but one. Why mention these two very different musical styles in the same sentence? Because recently they have come together in a new musical motif called Ragga Jungle: a fusion of ragga and jungle. This definition, however, does nothing to explain the rich and interrelated history of the musical styles, nor does it offer any insight into their purpose or future. A fuller definition and description is the goal of this paper. This will be achieved through a historical look at reggae music in Jamaica and the UK, a description of the new electronic instruments, and a thorough examination of ragga and jungle. Suffice to say here that through the 1900s the evolution of reggae in the two countries was similar, but not the same, and ragga brought the two diverged paths back together. After this time deejays and producers in Britain then took the next step, fusing Ragga and Jungle. It is also the authors goal to link dancehall and the rave culture associated with drum n bass as well as there associated drugs of choice, ganja and ecstasy. Lastly, two important questions will be answered: Is this new music still reggae, and, if so, is it in any way Rasta? Raggas history begins with Jamaica becoming irrevocably tied to England following Britains defeat of Spain in 1655. Jamaica had been a Spanish colony, but was taken by Britain as a spoil of war. The next 150 years saw hundreds of thousands, possibly millions, of African slaves brought to the island to work the sugar cane fields. These slaves were kept uneducated and illiterate, and colonial slave masters attempted to force the Africans to abandon their cultural beliefs and traditions. They were not successful. Perhaps the most important reason for this was music. As Verena Reckord asserts, the slaves under severely repressive conditions preserved what they could of African culture, including music and dance, capsulated in extracts from larger ritual forms of their homelands. Through song and rhythm the slaves kept tradition alive. Without a doubt though, their estrangement in an alien environment heavily influenced and shaped the course of their culture. Considering slavery and African tradition are important because these explain the primary instrument in reggae: the drum. First, as slaves, they had no money and drums are cheap and easy instruments to make. Almost anything, from rocks, to empty containers, to a hollowed out log can make a drum. Next, African tribes traditionally used drums, as they provide, a rich polyridimic base for vocal instruments. Further, many tribes considered the drum to have a voice of its own, which could be used to communicate with spirits. Lastly, as dance was also a component of African ritual, the drum was the perfect instrument to provide the dancing beat. Before the coming of reggae, the drums importance was evident in many of the folk religions practiced by black Jamaicans, such as Kumina. Kumina services involved a sacrifice, the drinking of alcoholic spirits, and dancing, also called Kumina which was performed until a state of spirit possession was achieved. Of course, the drum provided the beat for this energy charged ceremony. Besides drumming, a call and response vocal style emerged which linked together the leader and audience. Ceremonies like Kumina formed the base from which reggae and ragga would evolve. Before this, however, the music had to pass through a number of other phases, which will be explained in the upcoming paragraphs as they chronologically occurred. It is important to note, however, that there are few hard and fast dates. A new musical form did not spring up overnight to take the place of the old, and all are still around, to some degree, today. Mento came about in the 19th century and initially had two distinct aspects. One described a song a dance style of wandering troubadours of the time who, carried news, gossip and social commentary playing on their mostly homemade drums, bamboo fifes, and fiddles, The other described black Jamaicans attempts to mimic English song, music, and dance. The bands they formed were called quadrille bands, and expanded the instrumentation to include banjos, guitars, and a rhumba box, which was a large thumb piano for playing bass lines. Even with the new sounds and British influence, mento nonetheless had distinct African roots both in sound and the call and response vocals. Also incorporated was Calypso, which evolved mainly from a French/African background on the island of Trinidad. As a precursor to reggae and ragga, it is closely tied to mento through call and response and featured biblical images like the ones which would be used by later Rastafarians: The earth a-trembling and a-tumbling and heavens are/falling/ And all because the Lion is roaring. Here the Lion refers to the Lion of Judah, Emperor Haile Selassie I. Moving into the 1930s, a number of popular Mento acts had taken hold in Kingston, such as Slim and Sam, Lord Lebby, and George Moxey. Rather than focus on religious or political themes, most songs at this time were humorous, sometimes sarcastic looks at daily life and living conditions. In Dry Weather House Hubert Frier and George Moxey sing about a house where: Some of the rooms is so small You cant turn around in them at all When you want to turn around, youve got to go outside Then you turn your back and go back inside. The history of reggae undoubtedly involves a mention of Rastafarianism, as both have grown hand in hand. First, Rastafarianism can not be strictly categorized as a religion, as it is far larger in scope, extending to areas like social and political beliefs. Officially, its beginning was the crowning of Ras Tafari as King of Ethiopia in 1930. He took the name Haile Selassie, and added King of Kings and Lion of Judah, claiming direct descent from King Solomon. To the former Ethiopianist, Marcus Garvey followers, this was a revelation from God and the fulfillment of Jesus promise to return. As Garvey stated upon leaving Jamaica for the United States, Look to Africa for the crowning of a Black King; he shall be the redeemer. Music was and is a central aspect of Rastafarianism primarily due to its African roots, where as stated earlier ceremony revolved around music, particularly drumming. The Rastas, credited specifically to Count Ossie, created their own particular sound, called nyabingi drumming, involving a downbeat, symbolizing, the death of the oppressive society but it is answered by the akette drummers with a lighter upbeat, a resurrection of the society through the power of Ras Tafari it is a call to Africa. Following World War II, more and more American music made its way into Jamaica, and the dominant style in the US at the time was rhythm and blues. From the music of artists such as Fats Domino, the Platters, and Nat Cole Jamaicans quickly created a version known as Bluebeat, basically singing imported R&B tunes, with a mento flavour. Because Jamaicans desired new songs and a homegrown music, this style soon evolved into ska, and by 1961 the dual R&B/mento sound had local, original compositions. Despite American influence, the African roots were still present. Joe Higgs asserted that ska was, more to the African touch more relevant to the drums. Skas arrival went hand in hand with a new social gathering spot, the dancehall, characterized by the sound system and the deejay. While the economies of the US and UK boomed, benefiting all social classes in the respective countries, black Jamaicans remained relatively poor. As tension mounted, they looked for ways to forget their troubles, which they found in the new popular music. Still, however, an outlet for energy was needed. This desire for an outlet brought the urban poor to social halls to dance, after which moneyed promoters created large dancehalls for profit. Inherently, official dancehalls meant that people were paying to enter, which in turn meant the public expected something for their money. The promoters/producers delivered in the form of sound systems: elaborate, expensive stereos composed of multiple turn tables, a mic, and an array of amplifiers powering numerous large speakers. The speakers are definitely the key, as only through the large sub woofers, sometimes twenty to twenty-four inches high, can one get the chest quaking bass that carries the shuffle, dancing rhythm. As Junior Lincoln put it, They emphasize a lot on the bass So it really thump, yknow. The bass line is really heavy. Youve never heard anything so heavy in all your life. The deejay was the other all important cog, as he stood behind the turn tables, mic in hand, at the head of the sound system. These men, like Duke Reid, Sir Coxone, and Prince Buster soon became larger than life figures on the Jamaican dancehall circuit. Often, they and the sound systems they headed would compete, each trying to be louder, and each deejay trying to make fun of the other. This occasionally resulted in actual fights breaking out, ending with a blast over the crowd from Duke Reids shotgun to restore order. In talking about each other over the mics, the deejays created a whole new side to ska. Soon scatting or toasting became an integral part of the dancehall show, where the deejay would improvise lyrics during instrumental portions of records. As the 1960s went on deejays such as Price Buster moved away from earlier lyrical styles, such as social commentary, to words describing his own personal strength and his fighting and lovemaking abilities. This formed the base of what would later become the slack side, or ruder side of ragga. An example of this attitude comes from his song The Ten Commandments, where he tells his girlfriend to: Remember to kiss and caress me, honour and obey me In my every whim and fancy, seven days a week, And twice on Sunday. Numerous pages could be devoted to the many other deejay/toasters of the ska and rocksteady eras, each with his own style, some tending toward Prince Busters slack themes, others expressing their Rastafarian beliefs, such as U-Roy. Suffice to say that throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s dancehalls and sound systems alike became increasingly elaborate and expensive, all trying to be the newest, loudest, craziest, and most novel show around. As production techniques improved, a new musical style accidentally appeared: dub. While credited to King Tubby, who controlled one of the leading sound systems in 1972, dub was really part of a larger musical experiment. Producers found that after a song was recorded, it could then be remixed: replayed and re-recorded using new equipment to emphasize and lighten the various instruments and sounds. The guitar could be removed, leaving an even more pronounced drum and bass, or the drum and bass could be removed, leaving only the guitar. So began the dub explosion, which by 1976 had turned out a whole new series of rhythms and instrumentals to pour through the throbbing, giant speakers of the sound systems. One man who stood alone in the dub world as a link to the future ragga jungle was Lee Scratch Perry, who created the Black Ark Studio. Using the earliest drum machines and synthesizers, the grandparents of the ragga and jungle equipment, Perry found that voice and other sounds, as well as rhythm, could be distorted creating sometimes eerie, ambient dub songs. While new and experimental, Perry nevertheless often stuck to traditional reggae themes regarding past oppression and the days social ills. By the early 1980s dub and early dancehall had come together, both created for the dancehall atmosphere. Technology had also experienced a revolution, with more modern drum machines, synthesizers, and home computers. The stage was set for ragga in Jamaica. However, the end to the story, ragga jungle, takes place in England. Therefore, a historical look at reggae in the UK is necessary, which, when finished, will also bring the date to 1983, and allow for ragga to be born. England exerted an influence over the small island of Jamaica militarily, politically, socially, religiously, and economically which in some ways continues today. However, this has not entirely been a one way street. Jamaica, since the end of World War II, has slowly influenced areas of English culture, especially regarding music. The most important reason for this is emigration. An estimated 178,270 Jamaicans emigrated to England between the years 1955 and 1962. The country, decimated by the war, saw the Caribbean islands as a source of cheap labor that could be harnessed to rebuild their shattered economy. As in United States history, these recent emigrants took the lowest paying, least desirable jobs and, due to money and social pressures, were forced to live and congregate in urban ghettos. It was from this base that Englands strong affinity for reggae grew. Ex-Jamaicans brought their music with them and began recreating the sound. Bars and clubs opened playing imported reggae tunes, And within a few years, every major British city with a sizable West Indian population was beginning to shake to the sounds of ska and reggae. Eventually these clubs became the spawning ground for a new, slightly different homegrown reggae. Rather than talking expressly about Jamaicas social and political ills, scenes from daily life in England became a focal point for musicians and song writers. The slums of London, Liverpool, and Manchester replaced Kingston. While some of the lyrics changed, the beat, the lifeblood of the music, remained the same. By the late 1970s, early 1980s prominent, distinctly British reggae bands had been signed by major record labels, among them Steel Pulse and Aswad. Although some songs did focus on Englands social ills, Rastafarianism, Haile Selassie, and Ethiopianism continued to be a driving force in lyrics. Over time, whites in England could not help but get taste of this very different music pumping from ghetto sound systems. Soon Anglo youths began going to the clubs and developed a style and evolutionary chain which split quite sharply from the Jamaican and Ex-Jamaican direction. As British blacks continued along the same ska, reggae, ragga path as Jamaican blacks, holding Rasta beliefs and wearing dreads, whites in 1969 began shaving their heads, wearing a Ben Sherman shirt, crombie coat, and trousers ending high above the ankle to reveal a pair of polished Dr. Martins boots. The violence associated with this skinhead scene was unavoidable, and seemingly at odds with the reggae scene. In truth, however this look and subculture, which created some of its own ska, such as Skinhead Moonstop, was fairly peaceful. By the late 1970s, this Angle version had evolved into punk scene and music. Listening to such classic punk bands as the Clash, one can not help but hear the definite Caribbean influence. Further, many song lyrics convey similar messages when compared to reggae: distrust for the government, like the Sex Pistols Anarchy in the UK. Also, both groups, Rastas and Punks, were discriminated against because of looks and beliefs. The peaceful nature of this seemingly violent scene was shown in 1977 when both groups joined Rock Against Racism (RAR) to fight racist political parties, in particular the National Front. In April of that year a march was held by the Anti-Nazi league which ended in Victoria Park in Hackney, where both punk and reggae bands played to a large crowd.  This close relationship was giving as well as taking on the part of the punks, as it explains the source of Bob Marleys popular song, Punky Reggae Party. A further evolution by whites of reggae was Two Tone, which came from punk and borrowed heavily from the ska scene. The music, which incorporates reggae rhythms with trumpets, trombones, and a punk feel got its launch in 1979 following the release of the Specials tribute record to Prince Busters, Al Capone, called Gangster. As with Rastas and punk, Two Tone developed its own style, credited to Jerry Dammers, consisting of a two tone suit, which changed color in the light, and, most importantly, a pair of black, tasseled loafers. While the music was fun, humorous, and positive, the scene had a short lifespan. By 1982 the musical tastes of the British had again shifted, leaving both whites and black to enjoy the reggae scene together in the new and ever larger dance halls, with ever louder sound systems. Live bands continued and still exist today, but by 1980, as in Jamaica, the deejay became the norm, and with him new electronic instruments which would open the door to a whole new world of possibilities. Ragga became the new sound in both countries. To some, the Ragga invasion which began in the early 1980s was a horrible perversion of reggae music. To others it was a new breath of life for many musicians and would-be musicians. The word comes from a shortening of raggamuffin, the term given to the poor, urban youth. In essence Ragga is nothing more than, reggae played entirely (or mostly) with digital instrumentation. King Jammy is credited with nurturing the new sound and launching it with the Wayne Smith hit, Under Me Sleng Teng. This revolution was and continues to be primarily technology driven. As stated in the introduction, the primary devices of concern are programmable drum machines, particularly the Roland 606 and 808, synthesizers, such as the Roland 303, samplers, and desktop computers. Each of these plays a particular role in the creation process. As the name implies, the drum machines can be programmed to provide beats in a variety of rhythms and speeds, taking the place of a live drummer. Synthesizers make artificial sounds with either mimic natural ones or create new, eerie, ambient ones. As stated earlier, Lee Perry was one of the first experimenters with this device at his Black Ark Studio. The Roland 303 specifically, was put on the market in 1983 and was designed as a bass-line synthesizer for guitarists. It was poorly designed to this end and production ceased in 1985, but since that time producers of ragga and other electronic music have harnessed its limitless capacity for producing weird sounds. Basically, it is a small box consisting of a one octave keyboard, for programming the bass riff, and six knobs for controlling aspects of the sound, creating numerous effects. A sampler is a computer that, converts sound into numbers, the zeros and ones of digital codeused as a quote machine, a device for copying a segment of prerecorded music and replaying it on a keyboard at any pitch or tempo the information can be easily rearranged and it opens up a near-infinite realm of sound-morphing possibilities. Lastly, the new home computers could be used to create databases of rhythms and sounds, easing the strain on producers. Of primary importance to ragga, was that this new technology eliminated the need for a live band, which greatly reduced production costs. Obviously, this was a much needed blessing for producers, who were generally poor and running small scale, local recording companies. Lower production costs meant that more artists could be signed, and soon the dream of nearly all poor inner city blacks in both countries was to become the next international star, the next Bob Marley. Ragga itself is as diverse as its musical predecessors and has the same African feel of its earlier counterparts. From the beginning, in 1984 tunes such as Pocomania Jump came out, resurrecting the old folk religion based on spirit possession. As Steve Barrow asserts, ragga was Drawing freely from practically every aspect of Jamaican popular culture, including spirituals and hymns, it ranges from rougher-than-rough deejay music, through romantic crooning, on to a new generation of cultural wailers. As the above quote suggests, the music can be divided into three general subsets: the romantic ballad, slack, and conscious. The romantic ballad is just that, a gushy, mushy song for the ladies, meant to slow the tempo down for a minute on the dance floor. Slackness came out of a loss of cultural sentiments in both Jamaica and England Basically, it was the term for the lyrical content of many popular songs which came out in the mid 1980s all the way into the early 1990s. In the beginning, as with past reggae forms, social commentary or uplifting messages were the norm, such s the powerful anti-cocaine song, Kola Ko, by Hugh Redman James. Eventually new themes became prevalent, like gun talk and explicit descriptions of female anatomy. One example is the Cobra song Tink A Little Gun, which glorifies guns and gangs by saying, Shower man gun dem a clean Bad boys, yes we run the scene Nah run when we hear police sireen. However, these lyrics did not flow from a vacuum. From the ashes of the bloody political wars of the 1980s in Jamaica, the former posses began new criminal activities. Further, crack cocaine was introduced bringing with it the associated violence, crime, and other social problems. In England, while blacks were not in danger from government instability, they nonetheless faced continued discrimination and poverty, as well as the arrival of crack. By the mid 1990s a revival was occurring on the ragga scene. Called conscious reggae, it was a return to the African and Rastafarian roots espoused in some of the earliest ragga tunes. Artists no longer wished to be seen as gun-toting gangsters. As Pan Head, an up and coming ragga star said before he was gunned down in 1993 in Spanish Town, I nah talk bout no gun ting,, me nah do slack deejay talk. The movement was also characterized by a return to religion. One line from a Josey Wales song best describes the new attitude, Mi love mi gun, mi woman and mi bag of gold, but mi Bible never fail me yet. A case study could be made of Capleton who, after gaining fame in 1990 as one of the slackest deejays, made a complete turn around in 1992, professing his Rastafarian beliefs. Today he continues to record songs reflecting his faith, and has even made use of nyabingi drumming. The last step before discussing ragga jungle specifically is to examine the advent of jungle. Although now the genre has spread to the United States and a number of European countries, its story takes place in England beginning in 1992. While ragga artists in both Jamaica and England used the new electronic equipment to record and create instrumentals over which to sing, jungle deejays, called Junglists, stripped away both the guitar and the bass, leaving only the drum beat, known as the breakbeat (breaks). Then, using samplers and additional sounds provided by the Roland 303, they broke apart the breaks and then reorganized and looped them into a flowing pattern. The idea was to, as with reggae, develop a polyrhythmic feel, only one which was designed to trigger different muscular reflexes. Further, Alongside its kinesthetic/psychedelic effects, jungles radicalism resides in the way it overturns Western musics hierarchy of melody/harmony over rhythm/timbre. In jungle the rhythm is the melody. This pattern connects directly with both reggae and its African roots and is strengthened by the role of bass, which in jungle is also heavy and thumping, sometimes at two speeds at the same time, allowing dancers to find their own, personal groove. Also, the junglists connected themselves to Jamaica in name. As told by Navigator: Theres a place in Kingston called Tivoli Gardens, and the people call it the Jungle. When you hear on a yard tape the MC sending a big-up to alla the junglists, theyre calling out to a posse from Tivoli. They further connected themselves to reggae as they began yelling patois phrases from dancehall over the mics, such as Big it up! and Booyacka! Inevitably, this new music caught on with a large number of black youths, who saw it as an expression of their roots, and was equally popular with whites. All that was left was for a large enough number to focus on the ragga side, and create ragga jungle. Since the early 1990s, this has slowly occurred, and now a number of records and compact discs are available reflecting the newest genre. At this point, little more explanation is necessary. The jungle beats and rhythms are kept and extra focus is given to vocals sung in patois. Some of these do include chants of Jah Rastafari., and many popular tracks take vocal samples from ragga stars, like Buju Banton. The question posed in the introduction was, Is it still reggae and Rasta? The preceding pages have clearly connected the history of reggae in both Jamaica and the UK. Without a doubt it all points to, and ends at ragga jungle. One could even argue that this form is a step backwards, that jungle itself may be the supreme incarnation of reggae. In the clubs and raves across England where the music is heard, one experiences an enjoyable, loving, friendly environment which has a dancing and clothing style and speed all to its own and retains the carefree atmosphere of the dancehall. The call and response style is still in effect, only at the biological level. Here jungle may make its claim to supremacy. While reggae and ragga rely on words, the junglists have found they can communicate directly to the minds of the listeners. The beats and rhythms initiate response rather than the spoken word. It seem that there can not be anything higher than this. As to real connection with Rasta, the trance like state where union with other dancers, the environment, and the cosmos which can be achieved on the dance floor, brought on by the drug Ecstasy, is distinctly different, yet comparable to, the state achieved while at the nyabingi with brethren, smoking the holy herb. The entire unity is best put by Simon Reynolds: In jungle, all the most African elements (polyrhythmic percussion, sub-bass frequencies, repitition) from funk, dub reggae, electro, rap, acieed, and ragga are welded together into the ultimate tribal trance-dance.  Barrett, Leonard E., The Rastafarians, Beacon Press, Boston, MA, 1997, pg. 30.  Potash, Chris, Reggae, Rasta, Revolution, Schrimer Books, New York, 1997, pgs. 3-4.  Potash, pg. 5.  Barrett, pg. 19.  Potash, pg. 5.  Barrow, Steve, Reggae the Rough Guide, Rough Guides Ltd., London, England, 1998, pg. 7.  Hebdige, Dick, Cut N Mix, Routledge, New York, 1987, pg. 39.  Barrow, pg. 7.  Barrett, pg. 81.  Barrett, pg. 193.  Potash, pg. 6.  Hebdige, pg. 65.  Hebdige, pg. 63.  Hebdige, pg. 63.  Hebdige, pg. 66.  Barrow, pgs. 204-205.  Barrow, pgs. 164-166.  Davis, Stephen, Reggae International, R&B Publishers, New York, 1982, pg. 156.  Hebdige, pg. 90.  Hebdige, pg. 96.  Hebdige, pg. 108. Barrow, pg. 273.  Reynolds, Simon, Generation Ecstasy, Little, Brown, and Company, New York, 1998, pgs. 31-32.  Reynolds, pg. 41.  Barrow, pg. 273.  Barrow, pg. 294.  Barrow, pg. 307.  Barrow, pg. 283.  Barrow, pg. 310.  Reynolds, pg. 254.  Reynolds, pg. 257. Bibliography Barrett, Leonard E., The Rastafarians, Beacon Press, Boston, MA, 1997. Barrow, Steve, Reggae the Rough Guide, Rough Guides Ltd., London, England, 1998. Davis, Stephen, Reggae International, R&B Publishers, New York, 1982. Hebdige, Dick, Cut N Mix, Routledge, New York, 1987. Potash, Chris, Reggae, Rasta, Revolution, Schrimer Books, New York, 1997. Reynolds, Simon, Generation Ecstasy, Little, Brown, and Company, New York, 1998.  Reynolds, pg. 258. 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